Tacit Knowledge in the 무예도보통지 (Muye Dobo Tongji)

The 무예도보통지 (Muye Dobo Tongji) is a comprehensive illustrated manual of martial arts written in the late Choson period, specifically 1790, by Yi Duk-moo, Park Je-ga, and Pak Dong-soo, under the orders of King Jungjo [1]. Portions of the manual were originally written after the Japanese invasion from 1592 to 1598 by King Sunjo, detailing Chinese martial arts methods from the Kihyo Shinsu by Chuk Kye-Kwang of the Ming Dynasty [2]. Later, fighting techniques from the Japanese were also incorporated [3]. The Muye Dobo Tongji therefore serves as a culmination of both Chinese and Japanese martial arts methods, providing Korean soldiers with important information on potential aggressors [4]. Martial arts are typically passed down from in-person training between a master and his students. Through trial and error, a student’s technique is slowly refined to the master’s standard. This can be seen in sports today, as coaches prefer to teach their athletes through physical demonstration, as it is “undoubtedly easier to demonstrate with the body itself” according to Skill Transmission, Sport and Tacit Knowledge by Honorata Jakubowska [5]. For this manual of tri-cultural exchange to be fully understood, the reader must hold an understanding of this tacit knowledge, as the manual cannot correct a student's technique through observation. This experiment then serves a two-fold purpose: to demonstrate the importance of tacit knowledge in martial arts and to test the manual’s ability to serve as the master and teach martial arts methods. To test these hypotheses, I have recreated two forms of the Muye Dobo Tongji: the Kwon Bup Bo with tacit knowledge and the Jang Chang Hoo Bo without tacit knowledge.

Kwon Bup Bo: The Documentation of the Fist Fighting Method (Using Tacit Knowledge)

Figure 1: An example of the Muye Dobo Tongji fist fighting techniques. This is attached to the following excerpt: “6,7,8,9,10. Move forward and make the Hyunkak Huheese (False Prey Posture) kicking the right hand with the right foot and the left hand with the left foot, then the right hand with the right foot. [Next Paragraph] 11,12. Immediately make the Sunranjuse (Docile Bird Wing Posture)...” [6].

The Kwon Bup Bo is a fist fighting method of the Muye Dobo Tongji. The manual uses both text descriptions and images to describe the techniques in the method (Figure 1). The first obstacle in recreating this form is that the images are not correlated with a specific step number. Images do not have step numbers next to them to indicate which step they are demonstrating of the multitude in the descriptive excerpt. Context clues are then required to connect the image to the description. For example, in Figure 1, the right figure is kicking with his right hand touching his right foot, which fits the description of steps 8 and 10. Since steps 11 and 12 are also attached to this image, it seems that the image on the left represents this additional paragraph of movement. This then implies that the images should be read right to left, similar to the formal Chinese language used in Korea at the time [7]. However, it is still unclear how one should transition between these movements and what stances should be adopted to prepare for these movements (does the practitioner kick with a straight leg or does the practitioner use a snap kick? What stance is adopted after the kick?). To bolster my understanding of this form and increase my ‘tacit knowledge’ of the method, I used a secondary source - a YouTube video recreating the form.

Video 1: This video was found on YouTube and recreates the Muye Dobo Tongji’s Kwon Bup Bo [8].

Video 1 is a valid interpretation, as its move sets follow the general descriptions of each step given in the manual. Having a video replicating the content is much more effective than the manual’s image descriptions, as the video provides a 3D, essentially continuous, portrayal of each motion. This provides much more context than the two snapshot photos per step of the manual. With Video 1, I now hold an approximate understanding of the entire method (at least from one angle). Analyzing this video, however, it is also difficult to tell whether modern understandings of martial arts have altered the form from what it was previously. While it adheres to the text descriptions and the image sets, there are still moments in between that are up to the modern interpretation of the practitioner, moments that might have been critiqued by an instructor during training. Finally, the modern human body is very different from the 1790s body of a Korean soldier, not only in muscle but also in what was worn. Soldiers wore armor and held weaponry that may have impacted their style of battle. Despite these complaints, this recreation provides me with the most direct knowledge of the methods that I can find on the internet. For the sake of comparing this method to the no-tacit-knowledge approach in the next section, I will assume that this video is an accurate recreation of the entire method.

I can then build on this presentation of the method with my personal experience in martial arts. I learned Taekwondo under an instructor from 4th grade to 10th grade and have continued personal training afterward (currently in my 3rd year of college). I was also an instructor from the end of 8th grade until the spring of 10th grade (the start of the COVID-19 pandemic). This training also included supplemental martial arts such as weapon work (Kali, bo staff, nunchaku, and sword techniques), grappling (Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, Aikido, and Wing Chun), and self-defense (Krav Maga and Muay Thai). On top of this, I have also lifted weights since the middle of 9th grade, developing the muscles required to perform Taekwondo standard kicks, strikes, and blocks.

Using this strong foundational martial arts base, I was able to further analyze and interpret the methods in both the manual and the recreation. Most importantly, I took videos of my attempts and had the foundational understanding to correct my mistakes to adhere to the requirements of the method. After memorizing all the techniques of the form, it took me ten tries to create this video:

Video 2: This is my recreation of the Muye Dobo Tongji’s Kwon Bup Bo, done in St. Louis MO in WashU Housing on April 20th, 2025.

Video 2 provides my demonstration of the Kwon Bup Bo. Recreating the form, there was a large emphasis on transitioning out of kicks straight into combat. There is little to no time to adopt a typical recovery pose, instead transitioning straight into the next form. I am used to a demonstrated recovery during competitions to show control over each technique. These fast transitions, however, make sense for the battlefield, as any wasted time can be used as a window to strike the practitioner. Interpreting each technique, it was difficult to rationale behind steps. I found it hard to interpret if a move was a throw, kick, punch, grab, block, etc. I tried my best to interpret these moves, but without detailed instructions on what each technique was accounting for, it is difficult to know. For example, I interpreted one of the strikes in steps 4 and 5 as a grab and pull, so I adopted a Taekwondo back stance to improve the leverage of the pull. However, this pulling motion may be a block or deflection instead, in which case my interpretation would hinder forward movement instead of benefitting the practitioner. I also tried to adopt leg work that generated more power for striking purposes. One more important adjustment I made was that, in Video 1 and in the text’s images (Figure 1), it appears that the foot was not bent to strike with the ball of the foot but rather with the top of the foot for a front kick. This would break the foot if striking powerfully, so I instead adopted a heel strike for bare-footed kicks, which is a more effective and traditional approach to kicking. I then used a ball of the foot technique for the jumping front kick, as there were no contextual clues to suggest I use a different strike.

Looking through the lens of the manual’s historical context, it is crucial to understand what moves serve what purpose. If I were a Korean soldier interpreting this manual and saw demonstrations like Video 1, I would know how to demonstrate the techniques but not how to use them on the battlefield. Descriptions explaining the purpose of these moves would be very important in this case, yet they are not provided in the manual. Hopefully, officials and instructors were able to convey this information through word of mouth or demonstrations. Or perhaps instructors relied on the fact that Korean soldiers had already fought against Japanese and Chinese soldiers and therefore knew the applications of these moves. This method seems unlikely, however, as King Jungjo hoped to use this manual to teach future generations who may hold no experience fighting these nations [9].

While this emphasizes that in-person demonstrations are important, contemporary sources also suggest that bodily contact in martial arts provides cues that bolster technical application, as the participant contextually understands contact cues as signs to specifically correct movements or, in the context of simulated combat, initiate specific counter techniques [10]. To test the effectiveness of demonstrations and bodily contact in transferring martial arts skills, I attempted my own demonstration and teaching of the Kwon Bup Bo to a group of friends, college students inexperienced with the realm of martial arts.

Demonstration

I performed the Kwon Bup Bo twice to a group of friends. The first time was simply a demonstration of the technique. The second time, I explained the reasoning for each move, having a friend stand in as a hypothetical opponent to help me demonstrate what I was doing and why. I did this to the best of my ability, as even I was unsure of the application of some techniques. Despite inexperience, my friends seemed to hold a much stronger understanding of the method after I described the rationale behind the techniques, and my ‘hypothetical opponent’ also began asking how I would respond to potential counterattacks. Many even asked further clarifying questions and could replicate the movements much easier than before I explained the form. As they attempted different moves, I touched different parts of the arm or specific striking/blocking locations. They quickly adapted to these notes, and it was much easier than saying something like: “Use the fulcrum you have created with this block to, hypothetically, break the arm at the elbow by applying force in this particular motion.” This further solidifies that the knowledge of application, learned from the trial and error of combat, must be contextualized to give a learner the best understanding of the methods. This understanding can then lead to a better application, both in performing the methods and on the battlefield.

Jang Chang Hoo Bo: The Second Documentation of the Long Spear

Figure 2: An example of the Muye Dobo Tongji long spear techniques. This is attached to the following excerpt: “3. Move one step forward and make the Bokhose (Prone Tiger Posture). 4. Then move one more step forward and make the Bokhose (Prone Tiger Posture)” [11].

The Jang Chang Hoo Bo is a long spear-fighting method of the Muye Dobo Tongji. For this method, images are provided for the steps and are associated with specific postures of each step. However, when the image occurs in the demonstration of the pose is not clarified. This becomes more difficult when one image is tied to multiple steps, such as in Figure 2. Thinking from an educational standpoint, I assumed that the images represented the most important stance of each posture. With this assumption, I can then assume that the movements between these stances, the transition movements, would be the most efficient path between stances. This makes sense in a martial arts method, as energy and movement should be conserved to increase endurance and defensive capability. This then leads to the question: “what are the most efficient movements for a staff method?” Additionally, the stances rarely mention strikes and do not mention any blocks. When should the practitioner deviate from the most efficient transitions to attack or defend? Without a video for reference or an extensive background in long spear fighting, I resorted to multiple levels of interpretation. The first thing I did was analyze the material and design of the long spear.

Figure 3

The manual’s depiction of the Chinese- and Korean-style long spears, called Jang Chang [12].

According to the manual, the Jang Chang (Long Spear) is five to ten feet in length and made of a yew tree, which bends but is still quite hard, and the spear is “thick enough to fill the hand and becomes gradually thinner as it nears the point of the spear head” [13]. According to the picture, it has a double-bladed spear at the front, a guard quite close to the front for deflecting other weapons, and a small spike at the back (Figure 3). The taper, alongside the flexibility of the wood and the double-bladed spear, suggests that the front of the staff is often whipped and flexed. This accelerates the point of the spear by using the spring motion of the spear returning to position. This wobble means that the spear is likely used for slashing, and the wobble makes the spearhead’s trajectory more difficult to predict. Additionally, the positioning and circular shape of the guard suggests a swirling motion towards the tip of the spear to deflect another weapon (Figure 3). If a weapon gets past the guard, the spear wielder will have difficulty using the spear to deflect incoming attacks. Because the guard is so high up, it suggests that the effective range of the spear is very long yet extremely weak at closer ranges (Figure 3). The “Devil’s Ocean Searching Posture” of step 13 emphasizes the effective range of the staff, as the practitioner uses his arm to push an adversary who is too close [14]. Comparing the Chinese and Korean Long Spear styles, the Korean Long Spear has a smaller spike at the end that may be switched around for further defense (Figure 3). Enemies therefore must be kept at the tip of the spear as much as possible for maximum effectiveness, suggesting that spears were used in open spaces where there was plenty of room to retreat or advance. The Chinese Long Spear has no guard or small spike (Figure 3). The changes between the two therefore suggests difference in the two countries’ martial arts systems, or perhaps the Korean style attempted to improve the application of the Long Spear.

From this understanding of the Long Spear’s shape, we can begin to interpret each section of the method. Each section (except step 10) portrays the figure with the left hand and foot forward, despite any notes of odd-numbered steps forward or backward. Because the Kwon Bup Bo shows changes in stance, this suggests that the steps in the Jang Chang Hoo Bo are dashes forward and backward, keeping the same foot forward [15]. This would make sense, as the Long Spear needs to be oriented forward. Switching the leading foot while keeping the spear tip forward can become uncomfortable as the arms twist across the hips, so dashes would be preferred. Moving the spear to accommodate the leading foot can also be inefficient, as energy and coordination is lost attempting to switch the spear to the other side of the body. The only step that deviates from this is step 10, which suggests that the move requires some sort of spinning or swirling circular motion, as any progress forward or backward would simply require a dash. From the shape of the Long Spear and the figures, we now have an idea of how to transition between postures.

Now each posture must be interpreted. More specifically, the posture’s deviations from efficient transitions must be interpreted, as these deviations allow for attacking and defending. Each step of the method has an associated posture, as noted in Figure 2. Step 5 is the only step that mentions a direct attack, so other steps must be assumed to have strikes and defenses from the various postures [16]. Factoring in the minimal effective range of the Long Spear, I assumed that most steps backward were defensive moves and all steps forward were offensive, as a defensive move forward would bring the enemy closer than the effective range. Finally, I considered the names of the postures themselves. The “Posture in which a Blue Dragon Shakes his Tail” of step 2, for example, is a step backward but also denotes the strength of a dragon [17]. Because this then launches into multiple steps forward and a thrust, I figured that this posture name suggested a collecting of energy before the attack, the blue dragon shaking its tail before the strike. This is backed up by the following “Prone Tiger Posture” which suggests a tiger stalking its prey, perhaps swishing its tail [18]. The dragon also suggests more of a winding slash instead of the simple pawing of a tiger, so I attempted to replicate that in step 10’s “Blue Dragon Holding Up His Claw Posture” [19]. This step has the right foot forward, suggesting a swirling motion. Based on the posture name as well, this seems to suggest a twisting dragon, perhaps slashing forward with its claw. I continued this interpretation for all of the steps in the Long Staff method, accounting for the dashes, effective range of the Long Spear, the names of the postures, and how the preceding and following steps can help contextualize each move.

In the end, I came up with the following demonstration in Video 3:

Video 3: This is my recreation of the Muye Dobo Tongji’s Jang Chang Hoo Bo, done in St. Louis MO in WashU Housing on April 20th, 2025.

Video 3 shows my best attempt at recreating this form, executed after 15 practice runs (not including the time it took me to memorize the sequence of moves). For the Long Spear, I used a PVC pipe that is about 5 feet long, the smallest length of the recorded Long Spears in the manual as mentioned in previous paragraphs. Additionally, the PVC was not tapered and did not bend. I also performed this in an enclosed space, and I am unsure how the clothing of soldiers may have affected this practice. Looking at the method itself, it is very difficult to evaluate or critique my form without a teaching video. There is such a limited basis to know if the motions I am performing are the intended attacks and defenses. For example, I limit the swing of step 10 to avoid damaging the room, but this would not be known if I did not mention it. Additionally, this questions the validity of the Kwon Bup Bo Video 1. While it does follow the instructions of the form, there is so much room for interpretation this video is likely not accurate to how it was performed during the Muye Dobo Tongji’s time. If Video 1 was made from generational lines of knowledge transfer and by actual practitioners of the form, then it may be the closest thing we get to an accurate martial arts recreation. However, I cannot find additional information about the creators of this video, so this is up to speculation.

Interestingly, because I have recreated the method myself, I know exactly which moves are strikes or defensive maneuvers. Yet, I still cannot tell if these are the intended moves. In the historical context, I also cannot know if this was intended to teach the Koreans about a Chinese martial arts technique, techniques that they should learn to defend against, or if this was taught for the Korean soldiers to use themselves.

Discussion

In short, the lack of contextualization surrounding each move hinders the overall understanding of each technique. What move is a strike, a block, a grab? Without the interplay of another person or extensive detailing of what a move is used for, as shown by the demonstration, it is hard to know what to expect from each move. Even if another person is used, they are likely not a Japanese or Chinese soldier of the time and do not hold experience with those martial arts systems, so it is difficult to know how an adversary would react in battle. The manual’s lack of detail, details that are assumed to be known through military experience, truly hinders full understanding of these methods.

This lack of contextualization reminds me of the generational information transfer outlined in the documentary “Sculpting the Buddha,” which details the lives and work of Buddhist sculptors in Japan [20]. The masters of Buddhist sculpting incorporate religious context into their sculpting, explaining specific hand positions and postures as representing various religious meanings. However, in their teachings, they generally critique aesthetically, calling for smaller arms for example [21]. Over time, these critiques may lose their contextual meaning, eventually becoming aesthetic styles, representing artistic notes about each sculpture. The rationale behind these critiques would be lost, but students who become masters could continue to enforce these same critiques without this rationale. This is similar to the Muye Dobo Tongji, as a lack of contextualization and rationalization hinders the understanding of technique application. While there are still sculpting masters that live to teach their disciples religious context, the melee-based warfare of the Muye Dobo Tongji’s time, and its practitioners, have ended. Martial arts continues to evolve with the times, and old practices are adopted into the modern context. Even I, in my recreation of the Kwon Bup Bo, adopted my knowledge of martial arts to change the method to be more practical.

So, why is this manual so vague? There are likely two reasons for this. The first is that these manuals were likely used by Korean military officials at the time who held extensive knowledge of martial arts at the time, including the correct techniques for various postures. They could therefore very easily string together these postures and teach them correctly to their students. This military training would have the in-person demonstration and explanations, including sparring drills, that my interpretations have lacked. This is reinforced by our in-class reading by Jacob Eyferth titled ““Craft Knowledge at the Interface of Written and Oral Cultures” which states that descriptive texts in the artisanal world of China “needed to be explicated, emended, and enacted by a skilled person who had already absorbed their meaning” [22]. These texts did not provide the information to recreate a piece of craft, rather they served as the guide for a skilled person to recreate an object. The vagueness of the manual suggests that martial arts held a similar culture surrounding descriptive texts. Secondly, these manuals were likely intentionally vague to prevent the Japanese and Chinese militaries from understanding Korean preparation. If an offensive unit invaded a training camp and discovered this book, a lack of contextual clues would prevent them from learning Korean military strategies, including how Korean soldiers fought but also how much Korean soldiers knew about the enemy’s military strategies. Keeping the knowledge contextual and in-person prevented these practices from being disseminated by other forces.

In conclusion, interpreting the Muye Dobo Tongji requires extensive tacit knowledge or in-person teaching from someone with tacit knowledge. While the manual may have been written to enforce this tacit knowledge requirement, trial and error in combat or simulated combat provides the strongest understanding of efficient martial arts methods, as shown by my demonstration to friends and attempts at recreating both methods. Without proper context, I fail to replicate moves and hold no basis to know if my moves are even close to correct. From a broader perspective, my recreation emphasizes that martial arts is inherently tacit and requires extensive explanation to justify various moves in the martial arts system. Without them, techniques become meaningless, as a lack of contextual knowledge severely hinders the understanding and application of these moves.

Further Research

For further research, I would recommend immersion in the military and philosophical strategies of all three countries at the time. In The King’s Foreword, King Jungjo mentions adopting the strategy of “the dragon and tiger” [23]. These are often used in the names of postures, and a better understanding of these strategies would help guide interpretations of each movement. Additionally, a better understanding of the Chinese and Japanese strategies would provide insight into what these techniques were teaching the Korean soldiers to prepare against. Even looking at modern recreations of Chinese martial arts systems can provide some insights into the fist fighting techniques, as seen in the cited YouTube video [24]. Speaking of secondary sources, further research into the creators of Video 1, perhaps by someone with more Korean knowledge than me, would confirm the accuracy of Video 1’s movements.

As for my recreation, I would like to recreate both of these methods using the intended military apparel as well as the intended Long Spear for the Long Spear method. Recreating the techniques using traditional Korean military clothing and the Korean Long Spear could give me a better insight into these methods, as these differences might affect how the practitioner carries themselves. For example, did the weight of military clothing provide more power for attacks or instead encumber the soldier? Did the shape of the Long Spear significantly change the location of the center of mass of the Long Spear or how the Long Spear must be wielded? It would also be interesting to see how Chinese drawing conventions from the original Kihyo Shinsu may have affected interpretations of each method’s physical spacing, including how to retreat and advance throughout the method [25]. I would also like to do further research on the martial arts backgrounds of the methods. Eventually, I could travel to Korea and visit museums that have objects of interest related to these methods, then travel to a site that still practices a successor of these methods. This trip would also give me further insight into the validity of Video 1.

Bibliography

[1] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 11

[2] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 11

[3] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 12

[4] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 11

[5] Jakubowska, Honorata. Skill Transmission, Sport and Tacit Knowledge: A Sociological Perspective. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2017.

[6] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 318

[7] Kyung-Ho, Sim. “Stylistic Diversification in Korean Classical Chinese  and Its Historical Nctions .” JOSPL, 1 Jan. 2024, www.jospl.org/upload/pdf/jospl-1-1-24.pdf. pg. 1

[8] Warrior, Poomsae. “Poomsae Warrior - Kwon Bop from Muye Dobo Tongji.” YouTube, YouTube, 28 June 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=-X0_Dh2po5M.

[9] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 14

[10] Schindler, Larissa, et al. “Teaching Bodies -- Visual and Haptic Communication in Martial Arts.” Moving Bodies in Interaction – Interacting Bodies in Motion: Intercorporeality, Interkinesthesia, and Enaction in Sports, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1075/ais.8.10sch

[11] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 65

[12] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 48

[13] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 49-50

[14] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 70

[15] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 65 and 319

[16] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 66

[17] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 65

[18] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 65

[19] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 68

[20] Seki, Yujiro, director. Carving The Divine. Carving The Divine, 2025, https://www.carvingthedivine.com/. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.

[21] Seki, Yujiro, director. Carving The Divine. Carving The Divine, 2025, https://www.carvingthedivine.com/. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.

[22] Eyferth, Jacob. “Craft Knowledge at the Interface of Written and Oral Cultures.” East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal, vol. 4, no. 2, 4 June 2010, pp. 185–205, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12280-010-9115-4. pg. 203

[23] Yi, Duk-Moo, and Je-Ga Park. Muye Dobo Tongji: Complete Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts. Translated by Sang H. Kim, Turtle Press, 2010. pg. 14

[24] Shang, Wuzhai. “Baji Pigua - Form Applications - Master Zhou Jingxuan.” YouTube, YouTube, 8 May 2008, www.youtube.com/watch?v=iLN7CB_EcA8. 

[25] Wang, Hsien-Chun. “Discovering Steam Power in China, 1840s–1860s.” Technology and Culture, vol. 51, no. 1, Jan. 2010, pp. 31–54, https://doi.org/10.1353/tech.0.0388. pg. 33